# Chapter 10 Mixing methods

In Humphreys and Jacobs (2015) we describe an approach to mixed methods in which within-case inference from a small set of cases are combined with cross sectional data from many cases to form integrated inferences. Reconceived of as a process of updating causal models, the distinction between within-case and cross case data becomes difficult to maintain—both are, after all, just nodes on a model. However the basic procedure can still be implemented, with, in this case, a rooted justification for why within case information is informative for estimands of interest.

## 10.1 Using within case data to help with identification

Here is a model in which a little within-case data adds a lot of leverage to assessing estimands of interest that cannot be estimated confidently with $$X$$, $$Y$$ data alone. In this model a front door type criterion is half satisfied. We assume $$X\rightarrow M \rightarrow Y$$ but we allow confounding to take the form of $$X$$ less likely in cases where $$Y=1$$ regardless of $$X$$.

With simple $$X,Y$$ data, even on many cases (20,000 here), we cannot get precise estimates and we greatly underestimate the effect of $$X$$ on $$Y$$; with full data on $$M$$ in many cases we do very well.

But we also do well even with quite partial data on $$M$$, e.g. if we have data for 100 out of 20,000 cases.

Thus a little within-case data helps us make sense of the $$X,Y$$ data we have.

The model:

model <-

make_model("X -> M -> Y") %>%

set_confound(list(X = "Y[X=1]==1 & Y[X=0]==1"))

plot(model)

Parameters: We imagine a true model with a treatment effect of .25 but positive confounding ($$X=1$$ more likely in cases in which $$Y=1$$, regardless of $$X$$.

model <- model %>%
set_parameters(
node = c("X", "M", "Y"),
parameters = list(
c(.75, .25, .25, .75),
c(.25, 0, .5, .25),
c(.25, 0, .5, .25)))

query_model(model, list(ATE = "Y[X=1] - Y[X=0]"), using = "parameters")  %>% kable()
Query Given Using mean
ATE - parameters 0.25

We use the model to simulate different types of data we might have access to thus:

n <- 20000

full_data <-  make_data(model, n, using = "parameters")

XY_data <- full_data %>% select(X, Y)

some_data  <- full_data %>%  mutate(M = ifelse((1:n) %in% sample(1:n, 100), M, NA))

Naive analysis:

summary(lm(Y~X, data = full_data))\$coef %>%
kable(digits = 2)
Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
(Intercept) 0.17 0.00 46.29 0
X 0.62 0.01 111.55 0

Note that the estimated ATE is too high – over twice what it should be.

In contrast as seen in the next graph the CausalQueries estimate using $$X,Y$$ data only is low – close to our prior at 0 and estimated with wide posterior variance.

With full data on $$X, M$$ and $$Y$$ we get a tight estimate on the ATE, though our estimate of the nature of confounding is not identified—though it has much tighter bounds than before. With partial data on $$M$$ (100 cases out of 20000) we do nearly as well. A small amount of data is enough to narrow bounds on confounding and improve our estimates of the ATE considerably.

# X, Y data only
updated_XY      <- update_model(model, XY_data)

# Full Data
updated_full    <- update_model(model, full_data)

# Partial Data
updated_partial <- update_model(model, some_data)

## 10.2 Distinguishing paths

Here is another example of mixing methods where a little within-case data goes a long way. We imagine that available data makes us very confident that $$X$$ causes $$Y$$ but we want to know about channels. In such cases, with high confidence about overall effects, and absent unobserved confounding, a little data on mediators might be highly informative.

model <- make_model("X -> M1 -> Y <- M2 <- X") %>%
set_restrictions(c(decreasing("X", "M1"),
decreasing("M1", "Y"),
decreasing("X", "M2"),
decreasing("M2", "Y"))) %>%
set_parameters(node = c("M1", "M2"), parameters = list(c(0,1,0), c(.5, 0,.5)), normalize=FALSE)  %>%
set_parameters(statement = "(Y[M1=1] == Y[M1=0])", parameters = 0)

plot(model)

We imagine that in truth $$X$$ always causes $$Y$$ and it does so via $$M1$$, though this is not known ex ante:

Q1 <- query_model(model,
queries = list(ate = te("X", "Y"),
via_M1 = "(M1[X=1]>M1[X=0]) & (Y[M1=1]>Y[M1=0])",
via_M2 = "(M2[X=1]>M2[X=0]) & (Y[M2=1]>Y[M2=0])"),
using = c("parameters", "priors"),
expand_grid = TRUE) 
Table 10.1: Priors and parameters
Query Using mean sd
ate parameters 1.000
via_M1 parameters 1.000
via_M2 parameters 0.000
ate priors 0.222 0.133
via_M1 priors 0.111 0.099
via_M2 priors 0.111 0.099

Now suppose we have access to large $$X$$, $$Y$$, data.

Table 10.2: Inferences with 1000 observations; data on X, Y, only
Query Given Using mean sd
ate - posteriors 0.988 0.005
via_M1 - posteriors 0.490 0.224
via_M2 - posteriors 0.499 0.224

We infer that that $$X$$ certainly causes $$Y$$. But we are unsure about channels.

However, this changes dramatically with data on $$M_1$$ and $$M_2$$. Here we assume data on only 20 cases.

query_model(updated_mixed,
queries = list(ate = te("X", "Y"),
via_M1 = "(M1[X=1]>M1[X=0]) & (Y[M1=1]>Y[M1=0])",
via_M2 = "(M2[X=1]>M2[X=0]) & (Y[M2=1]>Y[M2=0])"),
using = c("posteriors"),
expand_grid = TRUE)  %>% kable(caption = "Inferences with 1000 observations for X, Y,  20 observations for M1, M2")
Table 10.3: Inferences with 1000 observations for X, Y, 20 observations for M1, M2
Query Given Using mean sd
ate - posteriors 0.986 0.005
via_M1 - posteriors 0.984 0.007
via_M2 - posteriors 0.002 0.003

The data now convinces us that $$X$$ must work only through one channel. Thus, again, small within case data can dramatically alter conclusions from large $$N$$ data when that data has little discriminatory power for the estimands of interest.

## 10.3 Nothing from nothing

Many of the models we have looked at—especially for process tracing—have a lot of structure, viz:

• conditional independence assumptions
• no confounding assumptions, and
• monotonicity assumptions, or other restrictions

What happens if you have none of these? Can access to observational data render clues meaningful for inferences on causal effects?

We show the scope for learning from a mediator for a “good case”—a world in which in fact (though unknown ex ante to the researcher):

• $$X$$ causes $$Y$$ through $$M$$
• $$X$$ is a necessary condition for $$M$$ and $$M$$ is a sufficient condition for $$Y$$ – and so $$Y$$ is monotonic in $$X$$ and
• there is no confounding

Here is the data:

data <- make_model("X -> M -> Y") %>%

make_data(n = 2000,
parameters = c(.5, .5, .2, 0, .8, 0, 0, 0, .8, .2))
Table 10.4: Data contains strong correlations.
X M Y
X 1.00 0.82 0.67
M 0.82 1.00 0.81
Y 0.67 0.81 1.00

We imagine inferences are made starting from two types of model. In both we allow all possible links and we impose no restrictions on nodal types. Even though there are only three nodes, this model has 128 causal types ($$2\times 4 \times 16$$). In addition:

• In model_1 we allow confounding between all pairs of nodes. This results in 127 free parameters.

• In model_2 we assume that $$X$$ is known to be randomized. There are now only 64 free parameters.

Here are the models:

model_1 <-
make_model("X -> M -> Y <- X; X <-> M; M <->Y; X <-> Y")

model_2 <-
make_model("X -> M -> Y <- X; M <->Y") 

After updating we query the models to see how inferences depend on $$M$$ like this:

model_1 <- update_model(model_1, data, iter = 6000)

query_model(model_1,
queries = "Y[X=1] > Y[X=0]",
given = c("X==1 & Y==1", "X==1 & M==1 & Y==1"),
using = c("priors", "posteriors"),
expand_grid = TRUE)
Table 10.5: Can observation of large N data render mediator $$M$$ informative for case level inference? Observational data.
Query Given Using mean sd
Q 1 X==1 & Y==1 posteriors 0.499 0.156
Q 1 X==1 & M==1 & Y==1 posteriors 0.499 0.166
Q 1 X==1 & M==0 & Y==1 posteriors 0.500 0.138
Q 1 X==1 & Y==1 priors 0.502 0.105
Q 1 X==1 & M==1 & Y==1 priors 0.498 0.134
Q 1 X==1 & M==0 & Y==1 priors 0.505 0.136
Table 10.5: Can observation of large N data render mediator $$M$$ informative for case level inference? X randomized.
Query Given Using mean sd
Q 1 X==1 & Y==1 posteriors 0.811 0.029
Q 1 X==1 & M==1 & Y==1 posteriors 0.828 0.032
Q 1 X==1 & M==0 & Y==1 posteriors 0.525 0.164
Q 1 X==1 & Y==1 priors 0.499 0.106
Q 1 X==1 & M==1 & Y==1 priors 0.498 0.137
Q 1 X==1 & M==0 & Y==1 priors 0.501 0.138

We find that even with an auspicious monotonic data generating process in which $$M$$ is a total mediator, $$M$$ gives no traction on causal inference in Model 1 but it gives considerable leverage in Model 2: $$M$$ is informative, especially if $$M=0$$, when $$X$$ is known to be randomized, but it provides essentially no guidance if it is not.

### References

Humphreys, Macartan, and Alan M Jacobs. 2015. “Mixing Methods: A Bayesian Approach.” American Political Science Review 109 (04): 653–73.